Abstract
Shoulder stiffness can be caused by various etiologies such as immobilization, trauma,
or surgical interventions. The Upper Extremity Committee of ISAKOS defined the term
“frozen shoulder” as idiopathic stiff shoulder, that is, without a known cause. Secondary
stiff shoulder is a term that should be used to describe shoulder stiffness with a
known cause. The pathophysiology of frozen shoulder is capsular fibrosis and inflammation
with chondrogenesis, but the cause is still unknown. Conservative treatment is the
primary choice. Pain control by oral medication, intra-articular injections with or
without joint distension, and physical therapy are commonly used. In cases with refractory
stiffness, manipulation under anesthesia or arthroscopic capsular release may be indicated.
Because of various potential risks of complications with manipulations, arthroscopic
capsular release is preferred. After the capsular release, stepwise rehabilitation
is mandatory to achieve satisfactory outcome.
Level of Evidence
Level V, evidence-based review.
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Article info
Publication history
Published online: May 12, 2016
Accepted:
March 10,
2016
Received:
January 13,
2016
Footnotes
The authors report the following potential conflicts of interest or sources of funding: G.A. receives support from Mitek Sports Medicine. D.G. receives support from Arthrex, Pacira, Smith & Nephew, Donjoy, Breg, Stryker, Medacta, and Holy Cross Hospital. A.B.I. receives support from Arthrex, Arthrosurface, and Medi Bayreuth. E.I. receives support from ALCARE. A.D.M. receives support from Arthrex.
Identification
Copyright
© 2016 by the Arthroscopy Association of North America
